Hans Meltofte, Henry Huntington and
Figure 1. Map of the top of the northern hemisphere with the high and low Arctic zones delineated according to the Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Map (CAVM Team 2003), together with a tentative demarcation of the sub-Arctic. Lines indicating similar marine zones are sketched (Source:CAVM Team 2003)
The
The
With these features in mind, the purpose of the recently published Arctic Biodiversity Assessment (ABA), is to Synthesize and assess the status and trends of biological diversity in the Arctic … as a major contribution to international conventions and agreements in regard to biodiversity conservation; providing policymakers with comprehensive information on the status and trends of Arctic biodiversity. The intent is to provide a much-needed description of the current state and recent trends in the
The ABA comes in three publications: the Full Scientific Report, a stand-alone Synthesis and a Summary report for policy makers. The assessment focuses on the species and ecosystems characteristic of the Arctic region, including ecosystem services and indigenous languages, and draws together information from a variety of sources to discuss the cumulative changes occurring as a result of multiple factors. The
Today, Arctic biodiversity is changing, perhaps irreversibly. Change in the
A key challenge for conservation in the
Conservation action based on the findings of the
Furthermore, based on the
Main findings of the ABA
Arctic biodiversity – the multitude of species and ecosystems in the land north of the tree line together with the
The
The functional significance of different groups of organisms in maintaining the integrity, structure, services and health of Arctic ecosystems, however, is generally greatest among those we understand least. Microorganisms are key elements of Arctic ecosystems, yet they have been little studied.
Anthropogenically driven climate change is by far the most serious threat to biodiversity in the
Figure 2. Trends in terrestrial June snow cover 1967-2012 based on averages for the North American and Eurasian continents, virtually all of it in the Arctic. Values are standardized anomalies with respect to the 1988-2007 mean. Solid lines are five-year running means. The combined influence of the timing of snow melt and the length of the growing season is of major importance for the functioning and feedback dynamics of Arctic Ecosystems.( Source: adapted from Derksen & Brown, Spring snow cover extent reductions in the 2008-2012 period exceeding climate model projections. Geophysical Research Letters, 2012)
Climate change is the most likely explanation for shifts already visible in several parts of the
Future global warming will result in further northward shifts in the distribution of a great many species. This will include boreal species and ecosystems encroaching on areas currently characterized as the low Arctic, and low Arctic species and ecosystems encroaching on areas currently characterized as the high
Northward movement of boreal species may increase the number of species found in the
Terrestrial habitats in the
Arctic freshwater ecosystems are undergoing rapid change in response to the influence of both environmental and anthropogenic stressors. The distribution and number of lakes, ponds, wetlands and riverine networks are being altered with significant implications to the structure, function and diversity of associated biological communities.
Figure 3. The loss in summer extent of Arctic Ocean sea ice has occurred much faster than the initial projections had anticipated, so that the total ice cover at the summer minimum reached an all time low in September 2012 with only half the extend as compared with the 1979-2000 average. Similarly, the loss in monthly averaged Arctic Ocean ice volume for August 2013 was 76% lower than the maximum in 1979 (Polar Science Center 2013). (Source: modified from Stroeve et al.". Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast" 2007)
In the marine
A secondary effect of increased CO2 in the atmosphere is ocean acidification resulting from increased dissolved CO2. Since the solubility of CO2 is higher in cold than warm waters, Arctic marine ecosystems are especially prone to acidification, and there are already signs of such changes in the
Until the second half of the 20th century, overharvest was the primary threat to a number of Arctic mammals, birds and fishes. A wide variety of conservation and management actions have helped alleviate this pressure in many areas to such an extent that many populations are recovering, although pressures on others persist.
Since the middle of the 20th century, a variety of contaminants have bioaccumulated in several Arctic predator species to levels that threaten the health and fecundity of both animals and humans. However, due to concerted global action to reduce the release of contaminants, there are, as yet, few demonstrated effects on Arctic species at the population level. Lack of data may mask such impacts, however. New contaminants, and changing fluxes of others, continue to be introduced to Arctic ecosystems and related food webs with unknown ecosystem effects.
Arctic habitats are among the least anthropologically disturbed on Earth, and huge tracts of almost pristine tundra, mountain, freshwater and marine habitats still exist. While climate change is the most geographically extensive and potentially harmful anthropogenic impacts at present, regionally ocean bottom trawling, non-renewable resource development and other forms of intensive land use pose serious challenges to Arctic biodiversity.
Pollution from oil spills at sites of oil and gas development and from oil transport is a serious local threat particularly in coastal and marine ecosystems. A major oil spill in ice-filled waters would be disastrous to marine mammals, birds and other biota, because containing and cleaning up oil spills in broken ice is very difficult, particularly under problematic weather, light and ice conditions.
Many Arctic species spend much of the year outside the
At present, few human-introduced alien species, including pathogens and disease vectors, are spreading unchecked and putting Arctic species under pressure. However, the pathways by which invasive species spread, such as shipping and resource development corridors, are rapidly expanding and may dramatically increase the rate of introduction. Many potentially disruptive alien species are also found in sub-Arctic regions and will probably spread northwards along with other species in a warming climate.
There is an enormous deficit in our knowledge of species richness in many groups of organisms, and monitoring in the
The multitude of changes in Arctic biodiversity – driven by climate and other anthropogenic stressors – will have profound effects on the living conditions of peoples in the
Suggested conservation and research priorities
Taken together, the most serious pressure on Arctic biodiversity in the past was overharvest, whereas the most serious present and future pressure is climate change. Most overharvest problems are relatively easy to address and many have been alleviated, while others such as heavily depleted seabird populations in
The erosion of global biodiversity is not the only global crisis of our time. It has been argued that changes in climate, biodiversity, infectious diseases, energy supplies, food, freshwater, human population and the global financial system are part of one contemporary global challenge, and that they need to be addressed as such (Steffen et al. 2011). If this is not done in an integrated and sustainable way, efforts to address one challenge may very well worsen one or more of the others. Also, global markets seek the exploitation of Arctic resources, resulting in greater interconnections between the
To safeguard Arctic biodiversity and the services we receive from it, three spatial levels of stressors must be addressed: (1) global and circumpolar stressors like climate change and long-range transport of contaminants by air and sea water, (2) regional stressors like overexploitation, expanding boreal and invasive alien species, and (3) more ‘localized’ stressors like mineral extraction, oil development and ship accidents. Here, the 35 lead authors of the
The alleviation of global and circumpolar stressors with effects on species and ecosystems generally requires international cooperation for effective management.[1]
Since many fish, birds and mammals move between different regional and national jurisdictions, management can benefit from regional cooperation.
Although many aspects of local stressors can be managed by national or local authorities, bilateral or international cooperation on common standards may be needed in some cases and can be beneficial in most.
· To protect Arctic biodiversity from severe impacts from local development and industrial activity, biodiversity conservation needs to be a cornerstone of natural resource management and land and marine planning.
· Improved monitoring and research is needed to survey, map, monitor and understand Arctic biodiversity including integrated, repeated data collection following recommended standardized protocols and priorities, and involving Arctic citizens in the survey and monitoring, if we are to move ahead with science-informed decisions in the
In order to effectively respond to these suggested priorities, international cooperation and direct action at the national level are required. Many such efforts are already underway, and the Arctic countries possess strong legal frameworks that can form the basis for effective conservation of Arctic biodiversity. Nevertheless, such agreements and initiatives are of little use if not backed up by secure long-term funding, enforcement and popular support.
The
To build upon the work of the ABA, CAFF is organizing the first Arctic Biodiversity Congress in Trondheim, Norway on November 25-27, 2014. The Congress will promote the conservation and sustainable use of Arctic biodiversity through dialogue among scientists, policy-makers, government officials, industry, civil society and indigenous peoples.
Hans Meltofte, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Denmark
Henry Huntington, Huntington Consulting, Alaska, USA
Tom Barry, Conseration of Arctic Flora and Fauna International Secretariat, Iceland
[1]See e.g. Johnsen et al. (2010) for overview and discussion of international agreements relevant to the Arctic, their coverage among Arctic states and their efficiency.
Online features on the project website are an online series of commentary articles discussing a variety of issues facing the Arctic today with the aim at engaging policy makers, stakeholders and the general public on Arctic issues in different countries. It is a venue for public interaction and communication between the public, scientific researchers, policy makers and stakeholders through online comments in order to enhance the transfer of knowledge into action.
The features are written by a broad selection of authors, including leaders, experts and locals in the Arctic community.
Each feature focuses on one of the different trends chosen for impact assessment in the methodology report from Work Package 2 of the project: Climate and environmental changes in the Arctic; Increase in maritime transport; Increase in mining and exploitation of hydrocarbons; Changing nature of Arctic fisheries; Turbulent modernization of Arctic societies and cultures; Increasing research in the Arctic
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